] Dyeing Naturally and Sustainably
in the Southwest ] Carrie L. Redfern ] SW Studies 499 ] 2001
Introduction
Plant dyes represent a low-tech art
form that hold a significant potential for learning, here in the Southwestern
United States. For centuries, the Navajo and the Hopi have practiced this art with
various fibers. However, due to the
advent of synthetic dyes, the intricacies of the art and the reasons for practicing
it have all but vanished. Of course,
there are many who still use plant dyes, although the practice demands time
and patience, which our society in general does not accommodate. Working for a wage has dramatically reduced
the time available to natural dyers, not to mention artisans as a whole. And yet, the principles behind dyeing with
plants could be just what our society needs in order to implement environmental
and social change. We are all too
often caught in a materialistic world that fails to acknowledge the wisdom
of nature and the benefits of knowing the place we live in. Dyers today are often content to send money to chemical companies
for concentrated dye powders in every shade imaginable, thus forfeiting both
dollars and the practical experience to be gained from experimentation. Additionally, indigenous plants on our public
lands are being strangled by invasive plants that have continued to spread
relatively unchecked. We have all
but abandoned our positions as stewards of the land and our responsibility
to know and care for the place where we live.
This research seeks to present the
art of dyeing with local plants from the perspective that dyeing naturally
is safe and sustainable when practiced wisely, is safer and more sustainable
than using synthetic dyes, and holds potential as a community-based weed management
program that could reestablish community members as land stewards in the Southwest.
Navajo
Weaving and Dyeing
The Navajo people call themselves,
the Diné, meaning the People. The story of how weaving came to be known by
the People forms the introduction to, Spider
Woman: A Story of Navajo Weavers and Chanters ([1934] 1968), written by
Gladys Reichard:
Spider Woman instructed the Navajo women how to weave on a loom
which Spider Man told them how to make.
The crosspoles were made of sky and earth cords, the warp sticks of sun
rays, the healds of rock crystal and sheet lightning. The batten was a sun halo, white shell made the comb. There were four spindles: one a stick of
zigzag lightning with a whorl of cannel coal; one a stick of flash lightning
with a whorl of turquoise; a third had a stick of sheet lightning with a whorl
of abalone; a rain streamer formed the stick of the fourth, and its whorl was
white shell. (iii)
There are two Southwestern arts that
are considered (by many) to be quintessentially Navajo: silversmithing and
weaving. Certainly, before the days
of the “Long Walk,” the Navajo were dyeing their wool for clothing and blankets
and sandcasting silver into concho belts (Norrell 1996).
Isabell Deschinny, whose mother and grandmother taught her to card,
spin, dye (with plants), and weave wool, now teaches these arts on the reservation
and at the University of New Mexico. Deschinny’s
mother, the late Mable Burnside Myers, created the first Navajo dye chart,
which features a small weaving in the center (Norrell 1996).
Deschinny says that Navajo weaving came from the Pueblos. “We helped them during the Pueblo Revolt….We
migrated with each other and we exchanged designs” (Norrell 1996: 9B). Today, much of what modern Southwestern weavers
know about the art of natural dyeing has come from the wisdom and patience
of centuries of Navajo weavers.
The
synthetic replaces the natural
It is believed that the art of dyeing originated in India, although
there are no textiles dated earlier than the 15th century that
have survived (Chavan 1995). The earliest authentic records, from 2600 B.C.,
are of Chinese silks dyed with natural colors (Chavan 1995). Ancient dyers were amazingly astute in low-tech
methods of extracting plant dyes and producing high quality textiles and printed
materials, and did so until the advent of synthetic dyes made them widely
available in the last half of the 19th century.
Mauvein, the first synthetic dye, was “accidentally” discovered in
1856 by William Perkin, through his experiments involving oxidation reactions
with coal tar products (Mushak 1995). These new dyes, called aniline dyes, were made
with the plentiful supply of coal tar from the coking industry (Smith and
Wagner 1991). In the U.S., aniline dyes essentially replaced plant dyes
by the early 1900s. Germany was at
the forefront of dye research and development, so textile industries were
hard hit when Germany’s export of synthetic dyes halted during World War I
(Chavan 1995). However, the dye industry
rebounded and expanded rapidly in Europe and the U.S. following the war. However, the “enthusiasm for synthetic dyes
did not develop because of dissatisfaction with natural dyes or their properties,
but rather because of their availability” (Smith and Wagner 1991: 32). Today, synthetic dyes are made from petroleum.
Synthetic Dyes:
Procion® Fiber Reactive Dyes
The dye industry was the major synthetic organic
chemical industry during the late 1800s and early 1900s and “became the forerunner
of the pharmaceutical and agricultural chemical industries, as well as, synthetic
fibers, plastics and food chemistry” (Smith and Wagner 1991: 32).
A perception that is gaining popularity today is that these chemical
industries, in particular, are responsible for altering the natural balance
of our environment (Chavan 1995). In
response, perhaps to consumer pressure, fiber reactive dyes were created in
1956 (Blumenthal and Kreider 1988). If
you are wearing cotton clothing, there is a good chance that it was dyed or
printed with Procion dyes since these dyes are widely used in industry. Procion MX series fiber reactive dyes are believed
to be among the safest of all dyes available for home use, containing no known
carcinogens (Walter 1989). While
the toxicity of Procion MX dyes is low enough that they are generally considered
“non-toxic,” they have not been tested for human consumption (Burch 2001).
Procion dyes were designed to permanently dye cellulose fibers (plant-based
fibers) such as cotton, linen, ramie, hemp, viscose rayon, jute, paper, wood,
basket reed, and silk, at room temperature. Procion dyes can also be used on animal protein
fibers, such as wool, by using acid at a rolling boil or with steam (Pro Chemical
& Dye Inc. 2001). About two ounces of Procion dye powder can be used
to dye 10-15 cotton t-shirts. Procion
MX is, however, a fine dye powder and repeated inhalation has been found to
cause an allergic reaction in some people (Burch 2001; Dharma Trading Co.
2001; Walter 1989). Some colors contain faint traces of formaldehyde and/or
copper, which in California, requires they have a special warning label (Dharma
Trading Co. 2001). Although the dyes are not believed to be absorbed through
the skin, it is recommended that dyers wear rubber gloves (Walter 1989). Procion MX dyes are usually not recommended
for use by pregnant women, or use around children and/or pets. Fiber Reactive dyes do not require any special
disposal (Dharma Trading Co. 2001), so dyers across the nation simply pour
them down the drain. With this in
mind, who’s to say that (on a larger scale) companies like Pro Chemical &
Dye Inc. aren’t doing the same thing with their “relatively non-toxic” waste
products from the manufacture of Procion MX fiber reactive dyes?
The Revival of Natural Dyes
I
have repeatedly heard from dyers that they prefer fiber reactive dyes to plant
dyes because they believe they are less toxic, in reference to the dangerous
mordants commonly used in “natural” dyeing procedures today. However, as will be argued in the section on
“Mordants,” this does not have to be the case.
And what is rarely considered by the average dyer, are the energy and
inputs that are necessary to create two ounces of synthetic fiber reactive
dyes, the impact these chemical companies have on a global scale (regarding
waste disposal and worker exposure to chemicals), and the dependency created
(by chemical companies) for their products.
Another
argument, put forth by chemical researchers, is that there are simply not
enough plants to accommodate the overwhelming demand for colors in today’s
textile market (Chavan 1995; Smith and Wagner 1991). As of 1995, the global consumption of textiles was estimated at
around 30 million tons, with a growth rate of 3 percent per year (Chavan 1995). It is also estimated that 1 gram of synthetic
dyestuff is roughly equal to 440 grams (about 1 lb.) of fresh dye plant material
(Chavan 1995). Once again, it is necessary
to consider how much and what type of inputs were necessary to create
both the synthetic and natural dyestuffs. On a regional and community level, we could
become more self-sufficient and sustainable by producing and dyeing our own
textiles, thus reducing dependency on the global market. There has also been vocalized concern that
when dyes are extracted from dye plants, there is a large amount of “plant
waste” that is left for disposal (Chavan 1995). This supposed problem is not difficult to solve if we modify the
way we think about “waste,” and realize that the remaining plant material
could easily be composted (as it truly is non-toxic) thus converting this
spent material into nourishment for future dye plant crops.
The
revival of natural dye plant methods, not surprisingly, has occurred mainly
in “developing countries” (Chavan 1995) where dependency on synthetic dyes
is an expense that artisans are not always wealthy enough to afford. Turkish carpet makers have begun, with the
help of chemist, Harald Böhmer, reinvesting their time learning the forgotten
secrets of natural dye chemistry (Bollag 1998). The Navajo, as well, are commanding higher prices for weavings which
incorporate naturally dyed wool (Salmón 2001). These practices are decreasing indigenous cultures’ dependency on
synthetic materials, lowering overall costs (plants can be gathered from surrounding
areas free of cost), while reaffirming cultural practices that are deemed
vital to the people who developed them (Norrell 1996). To circumvent questions of plant population
depletion and competition with native medicines, the author suggests these
ecological guidelines be respected with regard to the collection of
natural dye materials:
·
Collect dye plants that
are considered “waste” (such as noxious/invasive weeds)
·
Avoid using dye plants
that have medicinal value, unless the use of these materials is sanctioned by
local indigenous groups
·
Do not collect dye plants that are considered food, such as
berries, unless they are beyond the point of consumption and are beginning to
rot
·
Collect dye plants,
including those with medicinal and dietary possibilities, that are growing
along the sides of roads, as these are not fit for human consumption
·
Collect the ariel parts of
plants, such as flowers, branches and leaves, as this will not kill the
plant. Do not collect the roots of
plants, unless it is your intention to kill that plant (in the case of weed
management strategies)
·
Do not collect slow
growing and/or endangered plants, even if you dye book suggests their use, as
these plants are often native and could have already been nearly eliminated by
invasive species. There are almost
always “weed” substitutes available for any of the colors these rare plants
might have supplied
Weed
Management
There are, of course, many ways to
define the term weed. According to
FLC Ethnobotany Professor, Enrique Salmón, “a weed is a plant with a bad press
agent” (Lecture notes 2001). The authors
of Weeds of the West (1996) suggest that a weed is “a plant that interferes
with management objectives for a given area of land at a given point in time”
(Torrell qtd. in Whitson et al.: ix). The
latter definition is probably closest to the State weed management department’s
definition. I call the reader to reevaluate
her or his definition of a weed in order to consider the possibilities to
be outlined. A weed is a plant, which
breathes as do humans (although in the opposite manner, exhaling oxygen and
inhaling carbon dioxide), and is often considered, by humans, as a competitor
for resources. Weeds are plants that
are in the wrong place at the wrong time. As is commonly known today, weeds were brought to the West by Europeans,
most often with their livestock animals or for their farms[1]. Human and domestic animal disturbance continue
to be the agents that most often contribute to the spread of invasive weeds.
In a following section on “Dyes from
Plants” I will outline some plants that grow in adequate abundance in the
Southwest to be harvested as dye plants; some of these are listed on either
the La Plata County or Colorado State Weed lists (See Appendix I).
It is worthy to note, many of the plants listed for “weed management”
are considered medicines by local indigenous groups and/or herbalists; and
many of the weeds listed can be used as dye plants.
The state and county weed management teams have largely overlooked
the potential impact local groups could have on weed management, and have
failed to really tap this community resource.
Local students have been mapping weed populations with GIS equipment,
yet are not allowed to follow through in the learning process of “eradicating”
weeds because spraying techniques are deemed too toxic.
The spraying of herbicides is a strategy used to kill weeds with strong
taproots that send up new shoots when the root is cut (La Plata County Weed
Management 2001).
Many invasive plants can be controlled through less toxic measures,
such as pulling, clipping, flower and/or seed collection during late summer
and fall. This is where herbalists, natural dyers, students and interested
community members can become involved in the conscious control of invasive
plants through their planned collection and use. What the state and county consider “undesirable” could be transformed
through practical community work and intent.
Take for example, the story of Christine Mckahan, who had an overgrowth
of goldenrod on her land in Wisconsin:
Five years ago, as my husband and I wandered around our two acres
of newly purchased land surrounded by rolling hills, grazing Holsteins and
Wisconsin cornfields, goldenrod grew everywhere. We wondered if we would ever get rid of this worrisome weed….that
first spring we pulled goldenrod out by the roots in our woods, where the plant
had not taken over. When the weeds did
not return the following year, we attempted to eradicate more by hand….After
years of pulling, mowing, and moaning, I have finally found a use for this
persistent plant. Recently, I taught a
natural dye workshop featuring goldenrod as a dye plant….I realized that this
lacy, yellow vision was the transformation of a bothersome weed into a
beautiful flower that could turn yarn to golden yellow. (2000: 80)
It
is ineffective to categorize noxious weeds as the #1 enemy on public lands
when public agencies are unwilling to acknowledge and educate the community
about the reasons behind the prevalence of weeds on public lands. “Weeds” are indicators of an ecosystem out
of balance, through privatization and development, public lands policy, and/or
overall neglect of the land that they inhabit.
It is time for the citizens of our communities to reclaim their duties
as stewards of the land, before all the knowledge of how to accomplish this
task is lost through the efforts of the dominant culture. Finally, when volunteers are successful in
their efforts to “manage” a weed population, and native plants are reestablished
in that area, it is necessary that all the work done is not defeated by the
reintroduction of cattle or a development project to the area.
The Chemistry
of Natural Dyes
Dyes
are “organic chemicals which selectively absorb and reflect wavelengths of
light within the visible spectrum” (Epp 1995: 7). A dye absorbs certain colors of white light and any colors not
absorbed are reflected back into the eye.
As an example, chlorophyll absorbs blue, violet, yellow, orange, and
red light, but not green, which is the color that we see. The majority of natural dyes are acid dyes (anionic), and are attracted
to the cationic site in keratin (the alpha-protein in wool), mediated by a
metal mordant (Epp 1995).
Fibers
Here
in the Southwest, there are a number of animals and plants, both naturalized
and indigenous, that kindly provide fibers for weavers and dyers. Of the species of sheep brought to the West
by the Spaniards, churro sheep seem to be the most well adapted. When compared with merino sheep, churros are
better able to survive both searing heat and bitter cold, and, consequently,
have been very important to the Navajo since their physical arrival in the
1600s (Jones 2000). The coarse fleece
of the churro is considered ideal for weaving into blankets and rugs. Llamas and alpacas are also becoming assimilated
into the Southwestern landscape, and are coveted for their soft, strong fleece
(among other characteristics). Indigenous
fiber plants include: Hemp dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum), Beargrass
(Nolina microcarpa), Bullrush (Scirpus sp.), Yucca (Yucca
glauca and Yucca baccata), Agave (Agave sp.), Milkweed (Asclepias
speciosa), Flax (Linum sp.), and Hopi cotton (Gossypium hopi).
Mordants
Mordant comes from the latin word,
mordere, meaning, to bite. “Mordants
are metals used to cause fibers to open up and receive coloration by absorbing—and
absorbing—the dye acids present in plants” (Bliss 1993: 16).
Mordants that are commonly used by “natural” dyers today are metal
salts, which vary from slightly to deadly poisonous.
These are: Potash Alum (Aluminum potassium sulfate), Iron (Ferrous
sulfate), Tin (Stannous chloride), Copper (Cuprous sulfate), and Chrome (Potassium
di-or bichromate).
Of these commonly used mordants, I do not recommend any of them. However, the use of a mordant is necessary
for color and light fastness (Bliss 1993; Brown 1990; Casselman 1993; Mckahan
2000; Norrell 1996; Weigle 1974). Copper
and Chrome have been redlisted, according to eco-standards, in terms of toxicity
(Chavan 1995), and the powders of these two metals, as well as tin, can be
deadly when consumed or inhaled. The
potash alum used by dyers is also considered mildly poisonous (Casselman 1993).
There are ways to use these mordants,
however, without endangering the environment with toxic wastewaters or endangering
dyers with toxic fumes or powders. To
mordant with tin or copper, the natural dyer can acquire a used tin or copper
pot in which to boil the fiber (and the dye plants).
Aluminum and cast iron pots, likewise, work in this capacity. Copper pennies or tubing can be added to a
mordant bath. A handful of rusty nails,
when boiled with a fiber, acts as an iron mordant. Potash alum (Aluminum potassium sulfate) is not the only alum that
will mordant a fiber; pickling alum (Aluminum ammonium sulfate), which can
be found in pharmacies and grocery stores, will also work, with even more
yellowing effect (Bliss 1993). Pickling
alum is considered safe enough to eat, and a spent mordant bath can be discarded
in the sink, added to the compost, or fed to plants that require acidity in
the soil. Cream of tartar, another
food additive, can be used in conjunction with alum, to soften the wool (alum
can cause fibers to become brittle). Copperas
(Ferrous sulfate) is used to acidify soils. For most plants soil acidification is unnecessary,
but lowering the soil pH is frequently required to grow plants such as blueberries,
azaleas, and rhododendrons successfully (Rosen et al. 1998).
Copperas powder can be used as an iron mordant, although it is the
not as safe as pickling alum. If copperas is used, be sure not to inhale
the fumes, but do not hesitate to feed the exhausted mordant water to the
lawn, the compost or acid loving plants.
Of all the mordants mentioned, alum is the most commonly used, and
in the interest of sustainability, all others could be eliminated.
Indigenous Americans, such as the Navajo
and Hopi, have traditionally used non-toxic mordants.
Isabell Deschinny explains, “In the old days, we used children’s urine
and juniper ashes. Some people still use it….Some Navajos use
salt and baking powder. They have
that right in their kitchen” (Norrell 1996).
The Navajo also commonly use native alum or juniper ash in many dye
recipes, as these can be gathered on the reservation. Additionally, here is a list of common native Hopi mordants
(Colton
1965: 14):
1.
Crude
native alum from efflorescence of drying soil.
2.
Limonite
from Chinle or Mancos shale.
3.
Rock
salt from Zuni Salt Lake or Grand Canyon.
4.
Copper
carbonate from copper ore from Verde Valley.
5.
Cream-of-tartar,
potassium tartarate.
6.
Tannic
acid from sumac (Rhus trilobata) berries, branches or leaves.
7.
Lye made
from wood ashes.
8.
Human
urine.
9.
Sheep
manure and water, filtered.
10. Smoke.
11. Iron tannate soot produced by burning
pinyon gum with native ochre.
12. “Potato Clay.” This is a nickeliferous talc containing a
small amount of aluminum.
It
must be noted that changing the pH can modify the color of a dyebath in various
ways, therefore, pH paper is helpful when diverse colors are desired. Before (and after) ammonia became available
during the 1800s, stale human urine was often used as a mordant (Kaufman et
al. 1999). Today, dyers use household
ammonia (mixed with water) as an afterbath in which they dip mordanted and
plant-dyed fiber; you can watch the change in color unfold before your eyes. Vinegar (Acetic acid) can be used as a pre-mordant
(1/3 cup vinegar to 1 qt water for 1 oz. medium weight 2-ply natural wool)
or as a dyebath additive, to heighten the color, especially in the red color
range (Kaufman et al. 1999). Alkaline
materials, such as soda ash, lime, potash, or wood ashes can also be added
to intensify the color of certain plant dyebaths.
One
final environmental consideration is that if basic materials such as soda
ash are added to a dyebath, then it is considered alkaline (high pH) and can
be neutralized by the addition of a little white vinegar (low pH) before disposal;
conversely, if acidic materials such as vinegar are used in a dyebath, it
can be neutralized with soda ash (Dharma Trading Co. 2001).
Natural
Methods
During the dye experiments I conducted
when researching this paper, I used a variety of methods to extract colors
from plants. These methods will be
outlined below. First, there are a
few considerations the reader will want to be aware of.
As mentioned earlier, the type of metal pot used in dyeing will chemically
affect the dye results, as each metal imparts its own essence in the boiling
process; this is especially true if a dyebath is acidic (which many are) and
reacts with the metal. Stainless steel, however, will not react or
change the color results. During my
experiments, I used a copper pot and tubing to achieve copper mordanting,
which is useful in obtaining a green hue from a yellow dyebath (Casselman
1993). For mordanting with alum or iron, I used either
a large enameled iron pot or a stainless steel pot. During my experiments, I used native rock alum
and pickling alum. Alum is especially
useful when a yellow shade is desired, but can be used with any dye plant,
as an all-purpose mordant. Copperas
was used when an iron mordant was desired; iron tends to dull and green a
dyebath. Dye water and exhausted plant
materials were thrown in my compost pile after use.
Many of the procedures I used were
adapted from Navajo Native Dyes: Their Preparation and Use (1940),
a cooperative effort by Nonabah G. Bryan, Stella Young and Charles Keetsie
Shirley. This is an excellent reference,
with practical recipes that reflect the Navajo culture they arise from.
These recipes often follow the “One Pot Method” that will be described
later. At times, I used a pre-mordanting
method, as outlined in North American Dye Plants (1993), by Anne Bliss.
This method requires more water, but tends to produce steady, replicable
results. First, yarn, fleece, or spinner’s
roving is washed to remove oils that repel both water and dyes (an unfortunate
trade-off). Next, the wool is soaked
(preferably overnight) to open the fibers. Bring water to a boil (add 4 T. powdered pickling alum per 1 lb.
wool before the water boils) and simmer the fiber and mordant for an hour;
remove the fiber from the bath, let it cool and then rinse (Bliss 1993). Meanwhile, a dye bath is prepared by simmering
the dye plant (1:1 ratio of fresh dye plant to fiber) in water for about an
hour (Bliss 1993). Dried plants can
also be used, although the color may be a touch weaker. The dyebath is then strained, and the pre-mordanted
fiber is added and simmered for up to an hour. This is a somewhat cumbersome method, and requires
extra water, but some prefer it.
Although individual
consumers have a reduced impact on water resources than commercial industries,
it is necessary that citizens, as a whole, raise their level of consciousness
concerning water consumption, especially here in the semi-arid Southwest. Therefore, I offer these two natural dye methods
for those who have limited water resources, or who prefer to be part of the
water solution rather than the water problem.
“One Pot Method” (from
Carol Lee’s Mushrooms are to dye for)
1.
Put
water in a kettle, add dyestuff (may put in net bag)
2.
Simmer ½
to 1 hour
3.
Strain
out dyestuff (remove net bag)
4.
Toss in
alum and cream of tartar and stir
5.
Put in
drippy hot fiber/yarn, poke under water
6.
Simmer
until it is a little darker than you want, pushing occasionally
7.
Remove
from kettle
8.
Rinse,
starting with warm water, until cool
9.
Hang to
dry
10. Label
This method is basically the same as
the method the Navajo have used for countless years, which requires a minimal
amount of water, and produces a dye with a minimal amount of time invested.
“Solar Dyeing” (from
Anne Bliss’ North American Dyeplants)
1.
This
project is best suited for summer (in Colorado)
2.
Make a
reflector box by cutting the top and one side of a cardboard box
3.
Line the
box with aluminum foil
4.
Place
plants in a glass jar, fill with water
5.
Line the
lid with wax paper to avoid adverse metal reactions
6.
Set the
jar in the reflector
7.
Place
the jar and reflector in the sun
8.
Set up
mirrors to aid in the reflection of the sun
9.
With
this process the water can be heated to boiling
10. Simmer the contents of the jar until
color transfer is achieved
Using
this method, yarn can be solar-mordanted, and then another solar method can
be used to accomplish the dyeing process.
Take pre-mordanted yarn and place it in a glass jar with the fresh
dye plants (contained in cheese cloth or a bag) and water. Set the jar in a black plastic bag in direct sun, until you remember
to take it out (soak at least one week and preferably less than three months).
This process uses the sun’s energy and fermentation (a age-old dyer’s
trick) to extract the color from the dye plants (Bliss 1993).
From my own experiments, I have found that this second solar process
works very well, and is the least time consuming of any procedure outlined
so far.
Natural
Dyeing with Children
Children are an excellent indicator when
gauging the safety of any activity. Fiber
reactive dyes are, consequently, not recommended for use by children, as they
are fine particulate dye powders that are easily inhaled. However, many of the natural dye methods outlined
above would be safe for demonstration with children present, and active in
the process. Pickling alum is a powder,
and yet, only so much of it could possibly be consumed before the mouth would
pucker and disable the consumer from eating any more. Likewise, mordanting with pickling alum does
not produce fumes that might endanger the health of children. However, I would not recommend demonstrating
natural dyeing with copperas to children, as it is not as safe (either the
powder or the fumes). In this case,
it is just as simple to obtain a cast iron pot and some rusty nails for this
mordanting procedure.
Most of the dye plants discussed in the next section should not produce
any adverse reactions in children, or adults; although rabbitbrush dyebath,
when consumed will produce nausea and vomiting (the sickness would prevent
a person from ingesting a seriously poisonous dose).
It is recommended that any new dye plant to be experimented with, be
researched to learn about its properties.
Some plants can be poisonous, and should be excluded for that reason. It is never advisable to leave children unattended when working
with inedible substances such as dye plants, and as long as children are advised
honestly about the process of natural dyeing, this should not be a problem.
Children can take part in every step of either of the solar-dyeing
methods described, as direct heat from a flame is excluded.
Composting the exhausted dye material is an activity that children
could learn from and also enjoy.
Dyes from Plants
In this section, I will report on my dye experiments and outline
a few plants that grow abundantly in the Southwest, which makes them excellent
dye plant candidates. First, I will
mention, that when possible, these dye plants were collected on the sides
of roads (where they tend to flourish due to disturbance), and were not gathered
with the intention of eradicating the plants.
As a natural dyer and amateur herbalist, I have found multiple uses
for the plants the state and county consider “undesirable,” and it is my intention
to raise awareness on the alternative uses for these otherwise condemned plant
species.
In further plant dye experiments, I plan to use
other abundant plant species, such as those relegated to the noxious weed
lists for La Plata County and Colorado State. Some of these include: dalmatian toadflax,
diffuse knapweed, leafy spurge, purple loosestrife, Russian knapweed, spotted
knapweed, yellow toadflax, Canada thistle, sulfur cinquefoil, field bindweed,
musk thistle, scotch thistle, blue flax, dyer’s woad, among many others. For the plant dye
experiments outlined here, I used merino wool yarn from the Navajo Nation,
churro spinner’s roving and churro yarn handspun in Chama, New Mexico. At the end of each explanation I provide my
color results organized by the mordants used with each dye plant. The dye plants I have chosen to describe are
only a small sampling of the species available as plant dyes in the
Southwest.
·
Chamisa,
Rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus): This plant grows prolifically in the Southwest, and can be
collected when the flowers are blooming in late summer, early fall. I used the flowers, leaves and stems to
achieve shades from light yellow to bright gold. A wide variety of shades can be achieved with this plant, by
varying the mordant or pH of the dyebath (or afterbath). ¯ alum=gold/bright yellow ¯ iron=olive green ¯ copper=dull chartreuse gold. By far, my most dramatic rabbitbrush results were achieved by
solar-dyeing churro spinner’s roving (by method of soaking plant and fiber in a
glass jar in a black plastic bag in the sun for months). ¯
Pre-alum-mordanted/solar-dyed=gold/orange.
·
Sagebrush
(Artemesia tridentata): Another plentiful plant in the Southwest is sagebrush; I highly
recommend this for dye trials.
Sagebrush grows largest along the sides of roads, where it is mowed
every year by road graders, and grows back tenfold within one season. I pick this plant when it is in flower or
has gone to seed at the end of summer, early fall. ¯
alum=orangish yellow ¯
iron=pea green
·
Beeplant
(Cleome sp.):
This plant, with a beautiful purple flower that bees love, also has medicinal
properties, so it is best to collect it along the sides of roads (where it does
grow in Durango). I picked the flowers
and leaves in late summer.
¯ iron=greenish tan
·
White
and Purple Asters (Aster spp.): These plants can be found along roads and in open dry areas, and
are indigenous, so collect with care. I picked the flowers, leaves and stems in
late summer when in bloom. ¯ alum=bright yellow/bright gold ¯
iron=olive green
·
Goldenrod
(Solidago sp.):
Goldenrod grows here in the Animas Valley, and can be used as a medicine, so if
it is found along the road, pick it for dyeing. Pick these flowers in late summer; if some leaves make it into
the dyebath there might be a slight greening of the color. My only experiment with this plant was
through the solar dyeing method mentioned previously for rabbitbrush. ¯ Pre-alum-mordanted
yarn/solar-dyeing=deep golden yellow.
·
Mullein
(Verbascum thaspus): Mullein can be found growing all over the Southwest, and can
also be used as a medicine, but luckily this plant also likes roadsides. ¯ copper=light to sage green
·
Oak
leaves (Quercus gambelii):
Gambel’s oak leaves contain a natural amount of tannins, so the colors they
produce are in the brown range. As with
sumac, oak leaves can be used as a mordant in other dyebaths. Pick the leaves in late summer, early fall. ¯ alum=tan ¯ iron=dark chocolate brown
·
Syrian
Rue (Peganum harmala): This plant can be found growing near Deming, New Mexico, where
it was originally introduced to the West, and has spread along highways from
there. The seeds are collected in late
August, early September, and can be used to attain various shades from yellow
to deep red. The colors I obtained were achieved using the powdered seeds of
this plant. When Syrian rue is extracted in water, yellows and oranges are
achieved, but when Syrian rue is extracted in alcohol, deep reds ensue. ¯ vinegar/water=pale yellow ¯ juniper ash/water= orangish yellow ¯ alcohol/water=orange, pink, orangish
pink, scarlet red (depending on concentration)
·
Red
Onionskins (Allium sp.): Although cultivated onions are not native to the Southwest
(there are wild onions that are indigenous), there is no shortage of onions
here. Red and yellow onionskins can be
used to obtain dyes, and the transformation that red onionskins undergo during
the dyeing process is somewhat remarkable, and the color is really
unexplainable. ¯
alum=rusty green
Dyes
from Insects
Cochineal (Dactylopius coccus),
is a beetle from COCCIDAE, the Scale Insect Family. “A female inserts the proboscis, a tube, into the [prickly pear
cactus] pad for obtaining nourishment, and secretes a white, web-like, wax-based
material over the area for camouflage and to prevent desiccation” (Gibson
2001). The male beetles are small
and live for about a week, just long enough to mate with as many females as
possible. The females reproduce and
colonize their host cacti, Prickly Pears (Opuntia sp.). Females, which are about one-quarter inch long
(or smaller in North America), are purplish-black inside and silvery outside
and produce a deep maroon pigment which is stored in the insect’s body fluids
and tissues (Gibson 2001). Crushing
the beetles releases the reddish purple pigment. Over sixty tones have been achieved through
the use of cochineal as a dye, ranging from purples, reds, pinks, to burgundy.
The preferred mordant of use with cochineal is alum (Dercum 2001).
Adding lime juice to a cochineal dyebath is the secret to a deeper
red dye (Dercum 2001). At a dye workshop
I attended (FLC SW Center), the presenter boiled alum-mordanted wool yarn
with a small bag (about 1/4 C.) of cochineal insects, and achieved a light
red color that she was not satisfied with; she then dipped the yarn in a solution
of water and ammonia and the color changed to a pink-purple/magenta.
Cochineal beetles contain about 10%
carminic acid (by dry weight); this chemical serves the beetles as a means
of repelling predators, especially ants. Somewhere throughout time, the earlier inhabitants
of Mexico (Mixtecs) learned about this beetle’s defense mechanism and began
to farm the insects for the dye they extracted from them. These farmers propagated Opuntia pads (by cuttings) already inoculated
with insect scale (Gibson 2001). Cochineal
is the red dye material with which European bayetta cloth (also called baize)
was dyed, and subsequently traded to the Navajo, who meticulously raveled
and re-plied the yarn (before the advent of synthetic reds) to color the exquisite
blankets, serapes and ponchos they wove in the 1700s and 1800s (Amsden 1975).
Cochineal beetles (Dactylopius tomentosus, D. confusus, and D. opuntiae)
continue to inhabit North America today (Rodriguez et al. 2001), and have
been found (by the author) on different species of prickly pears from Phoenix,
Arizona all the way to Southern Colorado (Durango and Cortez). This scale insect will infest, and eventually
destroy a prickly pear cactus, and are therefore considered fair game by the
author, a botaniphile, who has collected local cochineal for dye experiments.
Dyes
from Lichens
Lichens provide beautiful dye colors,
but are the least sustainable option for natural dyers. Lichens are extremely slow growing; some grow
only a few millimeters per year (McClure 1992). Lichens can live up to several thousand years, and are very sensitive
to environmental changes. Lichens
are most vulnerable when habitat destruction and air pollution disrupts their
natural cycles (McClure 1992). Lichen
collectors will not cause the extinction of lichens, however, any disturbance
in the life cycle of a lichen has long-lasting effects on its growth.
For this reason, I recommend that natural dyers leave these sensitive
creatures in the woods and parks where they grow, and stick to collecting
the abundance of dye plants (weeds) we have here in the Southwest.
Conclusion
Through my research of dye plants
of the Southwest, I have found that it is possible to dye sustainably and
safely using the low-tech methods described here. This work has given me a sense of connection
to the area of the world that I live in, and challenges me artistically and
cognitively. I am able to take part
in every step of the dyeing process, from collecting the dye plants to composting
them when I am finished. My actions
are not dependant on a chemical company, whose actions I will never see; and
even though I live in downtown Durango, I am able to walk out my back door
and find, within minutes, a dye plant to collect.
Dye plants are cost-free and the alum and copperas I use as mordants
are inexpensive and available at the grocery and hardware stores that are
also only minutes from my door. The
pots I have bought and reserved specifically for dyeing are once-in-a-lifetime
investments that have already justified their expense through utility. The methods I use are safe and could be applied
to service-learning projects that children of all ages could take part in,
from start to finish.
Dye plant collection is an activity
that could be undertaken by conscientious citizens and students who, in conjunction
with public lands agencies, could potentially have a positive impact on weed
management in and around the community. The collection and use of dye plants is as
sustainable an activity as we make it; if we seek to diminish a certain plant
population, extensive collection could be done at the time of year when that
plant is in full reproductive mode, and if we seek to enhance another plant’s
growth, collectors could be educated to leave that plant in the forest or
meadow where it was found. All in
all, natural dyeing methods, when they are accomplished with safety and sustainability
in mind, present an incredible learning experience for interested participants
in the Southwest and beyond.
Works
Cited
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Weaving. Originally published
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Inc., 1975.
Bliss, Anne. North
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Interweave Press, 1993.
Blumenthal, Betsy and Kathryn Kreider. Hands On Dyeing.
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makers to the secrets of natural dyes.” Chronicle of Higher Education.
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2nd Edition. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1990.
Burch, Paula. “Is it safe
to eat or breathe fiber reactive dyes? No!”
Paula Burch’s Own Site.
Nov 29, 2001.
<http://www.flash.net/~pburch/dyeing/FAQ/eating.html>.
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“Encycloweedia, Noxious Weed Index, African Rue page.” April 14 2001.
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Casselmen, Karen
Leigh. Craft of the Dyer: colour
from plants and lichens 2nd Edition. New York: Dover
Publications, 1993.
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Colton, Mary-Russell
Ferell. Hopi Dyes. Flagstaff: Museum of Northern Arizona, 1965.
Dercum, Judy. “Southwestern Native American Peoples
Methods for Textile Dyeing: A Brief Overview.”
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rules/noxious.html#2.00>.
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1995.
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Scales in the Sunset.” Economic
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1992.
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of the American Southwest. Venom
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Appendix I: Colorado State and La Plata County Weed lists
The
Colorado State Noxious Weeds are:
African rue (Peganum
harmala) Leafy
spurge (Euphorbia esula)
Black henbane (Hyoscyamus
niger) Longspine sandbur (Cenchrus longispinus)
Black knapweed (Centaurea
nigra) Mayweed chamomile (Anthemis cotula)
Black nightshade (Solanum
nigrum) Mediterranean sage (Salvia
aethiopis)
Blue mustard (Chorispora
tenella) Musk thistle (Carduus nutans)
Bouncingbet (Saponaria
officinalis) Myrtle spurge (Euphorbia
myrsinites)
Bull thistle (Cirsium
vulgare) Oxeye
daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum)
Camelthorn (Alhagi
pseudalhagi) Perennial pepperweed (Lepidium
latifolium)
Canada thistle (Cirsium
arvense) Plumeless
thistle (Carduus acanthoides)
Chicory (Cichorium
intybus) Poison
hemlock (Conium maculatum)
Chinese clematis (Clematis
orientalis) Puncturevine (Tribulus terrestris)
Coast tarweed (Madia
sativa) Purple
loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria)
Common burdock (Arctium
minus) Quackgrass (Elytrigia repens)
Common groundsel (Senecio
vulgaris) Redstem filaree (Erodium
cicutarium)
Common mullein (Verbascum
thapsus) Rush skeletonweed (Chondrilla
juncea)
Common St.Johnswort (Hypericum
perforatum) Russian
knapweed (Centaurea repens)
Common tansy (Tanacetum
vulgare) Russian thistle (Salsola collina)
Common teasel (Dipsacus
fullonum) Russian thistle (Salsola iberica)
Cypress spurge (Euphorbia
cyparissias) Saltcedar (Tamarix parviflora)
Dalmatian toadflax (Linaria
dalmatica) Saltcedar (Tamarix ramosissima)
Dame's rocket (Hesperis
matronalis) Scentless chamomile (Anthemis
arvensis)
Diffuse knapweed (Centaurea
diffusa) Scotch thistle (Onopordum
acanthium)
Downy brome (Bromus
tectorum) Scotch thistle (Onopordum
tauricum)
Dyer's woad (Isatis
tinctoria) Spotted
knapweed (Centaurea maculosa)
Field bindweed (Convolvulus
arvensis) Squarrose knapweed (Centaurea
virgata)
Flixweed (Descurainia
sophia) Sulfur cinquefoil (Potentilla
recta)
Green foxtail (Setaria
viridis) Velvetleaf
(Abutilon theophrasti)
Hairy nightshade (Solanum
sarrachoides) Wild caraway (Carum carvi)
Halogeton (Halogeton
glomeratus) Wild mustard (Brassica kaber)
Hoary cress (Cardaria
draba) Wild proso millet (Panicum
miliaceum)
Houndstongue (Cynoglossum
officinale) Yellow foxtail (Setaria glauca)
Johnsongrass (Sorghum
halepense) Yellow nutsedge (Cyperus
esculentus)
Jointed goatgrass (Aegilops
cylindrica) Yellow starthistle (Centaurea
solstitialis)
Kochia (Kochia
scoparia) Yellow
toadflax (Linaria vulgaris)
The top ten prioritized weeds for Colorado (Alphebetical)
Canada thistle (Cirsium
arvense) Leafy
spurge (Euphorbia esula)
Diffuse knapweed (Centaurea
diffusa) Musk thistle (Carduus nutans)
Field bindweed (Convolvulus
arvensis) Russian knapweed (Centaurea
repens)
Hoary cress (Cardaria
draba) Spotted knapweed (Centaurea
maculosa)
Jointed goatgrass (Aegilops
cylindrica) Yellow toadflax (Linaria vulgaris)
Weeds that pose
potential threats in Colorado (Not currently on State Noxious list)
African rue (Peganum
harmala) Dyer's
woad (Isatis tinctoria)
Black knapweed (Centaurea
nigra) Myrtle spurge (Euphorbia myrsinites)
Bouncingbet (Saponaria
officinalis) Rush skeletonweed (Chondrilla
juncea)
Camelthorn (Alhagi
pseudalhagi) Scentless chamomile (Anthemis
arvensis)
Coast tarweed (Madia
sativa) Squarrose
knapweed (Centaurea virgata)
Common St.Johnswort (Hypericum
perforatum) Sulfur
cinquefoil (Potentilla recta)
Common teasel (Dipsacus
fullonum) Yellow starthistle (Centaurea
solstitialis)
Cypress spurge (Euphorbia
cyparissias)
Noxious Weeds (Mandatory Control)
Dalmatian Toadflax
Yellow
Toadflax
Nuisance Weeds
(Recommended Control)
Purple Loosestrife
Squarrose
Knapweed
[1] Syrian rue produces a vivid red dye
to rival synthetic dyes. This plant is
becoming naturalized, but is not native, which is one of the reasons the Navajo
have not used it. Syrian rue (Peganum harmala) came to the Southwest in 1935, imported by “a now forgotten farmer”
who planted a small handful of the tiny brown seeds several miles east of
Deming, New Mexico (Most 1985). The
plants flourished, produced viable seed, and quickly escaped cultivation. The seeds are easily dispersed by
automobiles, and spread along highways throughout the West. Syrian rue is now considered a noxious
(toxic) weed in several states, and can be found in New Mexico, Arizona,
Colorado, California, Oregon, Nevada, and Washington (perhaps more). African rue, as it is often called, is a bushy,
herbaceous perennial with short creeping roots, and grows to 0.8 m tall
(California Department of Agriculture 2001).